A new doctoral thesis at ETH Zurich investigates the behavioral implications of introducing smartwatch technology for job shop scheduling and control.

Dr. Daniel Kwasnitschka has worked with professors Henrik Franke (University of Cologne), Jan Schmutz (University of Zurich), and myself to study a global manufacturer’s introduction and use of smartwatch technology for workforce scheduling and control. The smartwatches—supplied by Workerbase—inform workers directly on their arm wrists whenever machines need new materials, replace full carts, or have stoppages.

This system replaces one in which operators roam a limited area to look for alarms and frontline team leaders coordinate work across areas. With the smartwatch system, workers’ skills are matched directly with open tasks and machine types and workers can accept or reject tasks directly. This system has clear benefits but also drawbacks. Kwasnitschka’s thesis focused on the behavioral implications of the smartwatch system.

In two recent publications in the Journal of Operations Management (JOM), Kwasnitschka and his coauthors report the results of two field experiments: the first studies whether the smartwatch system can help nudge more cross-area helping behavior on the shop floor and the second investigates the effect of giving workers performance feedback via the smartwatch.

From a focus on machines to skills?

A key characteristic of the smartwatch job scheduling system is that it “frees up” operators to roam where their skills and capabilities are needed instead of being dedicated to a small area in the factory for practical reasons. Ideally, this shift could also lead to a stronger focus on skills and learning new tasks. It could reduce operators’ unproductive habits of sticking to a few “favorite machines.” To study this opportunity, we conducted a field experiment led by Prof. Franke: “Emphasizing Worker Identification with Skills to Increase Helping and Productivity in Production: A Field Experiment.”¹

We studied whether a stronger focus on skills could improve helping behavior and, thereby, operational performance. During two weeks, one factory received a “skills pill” containing various forms of nudges to emphasize worker skills: Shift leaders were asked to talk about skills during shift meetings, operators joined skill workshops, campaign posters were distributed, and we used the smartwatch system to give feedback to operators on which of their registered skills they had used during a shift. Another comparable factory did not receive such a “skill pill” treatment. The study was preregistered in a special issue on field experiments in JOM.

The results were sobering; the “skill pill” in our experiment did indeed increase the operators’ identification with their skills, but this did not result in increased helping behavior or productivity. The conclusion is clear: more research is needed!

Performance feedback via the smartwatch

The second paper investigates the role and form of feedback to operators in manufacturing. Since workers already use smartwatches to receive job tasks, could the watches also provide feedback on work performance? In a digitalized work task scheduling system seamlessly connected with a Manufacturing Execution System, this is indeed possible. The question then becomes if it is useful and how?

In the paper “Effects of Feedback in Manufacturing: A Field Experiment Using Smartwatch Technology,” we investigate these questions through a field experiment in a factory in Germany.² In two factories, we used the smartwatch system to provide direct feedback about performance to the individual about either their own or the team’s performance. Analyzing data from almost 30.000 machine status reports, we conclude that individual-level feedback is more impactful than team-oriented feedback. The feedback is also more effective when it is formulated positively. Hence, in the context we studied, prompting operators, “You have performed 2 out of 3 tasks,” is a better performance nudge than the feedback, “Your team has performed 10 out of 15 tasks.” For this paper, we made a short video summary:

What’s next for smartwatches in manufacturing?

Smartwatches are among the latest technology hype in manufacturing and offer a few benefits. First, they enable direct digital information to dispersed shopfloor workers, which reduces the need for frontline managers to coordinate work. Second, in the company we studied, the job tasks and feedback messages are only sent to relevant and qualified personnel, which allows operators to be used more effectively and flexibly across the factory. This was enabled by a carefully curated and administrated task qualification scheme and skill matrix. Third, performance can be tracked and measured at the individual level, which again can be used to make better use of everyone’s time and balance workload across teams. It can also be used to find best practices and provide targeted training to individuals.

However, the drawbacks are also quite obvious. There may be negative effects on individual workers who may be (or feel) tracked and measured during work. If the smartwatch system is in the hands of the wrong managers, it may easily be misused. This was not the case in the company we worked with, which did not track position or report performance at the individual level. Technologically, a considerable digital infrastructure must be installed and maintained. Organizationally, the system has to be managed, employees to be trained, and new work routines implemented.

Overall, it is unclear whether the large associated costs of a smartwatch system would pay off in increased productivity, especially considering the behavioral implications. What do you think?

References

1. Franke, H., Kwasnitschka, D., Schmutz, J., and Netland, T. (2024) Emphasizing skill over machines in worker identity to increase helping and performance in production. Journal of Operations Management, URL
2. Kwasnitschka, D., Franke, H., and Netland, T. (2024). Effects of feedback in manufacturing: A field experiment using smartwatch technology. Journal of Operations Management, URL